簡(jiǎn)介：身份證英文翻譯模板身份證英文翻譯模板正面（FRONTSIDE）背面（BACKSIDE）姓名NAMEXXXX性別SEXFEMALE/MALE民族ETHNICITYHAN出生DATEOFBIRTH18/03/1993住址RESIDENTIALADDRESSNOXUNITX,NOX,XXXSTREET,XXXDISTRICT,XXX,XXXPROVINCECITIZENIDNUMBERXXXXXXXXXXXXX中國(guó)人民共和國(guó)居民身份證CITIZENIDENTITYCARDOFTHEPEOPLE’SREPUBLICOFCHINA簽發(fā)機(jī)關(guān)XX省XX市XX區(qū)（縣）公安局AUTHORITYPUBLICSECURITYSUBBUREAUOFXXDISTRICT（COUNTY），XXCITY，XXPROVINCE有限期限2008031220180312VALIDTHROUGH2008031220180312東鄉(xiāng)DONGXIANG/SARTA高山（這是大陸叫法，是個(gè)統(tǒng)稱。臺(tái)灣原住民有若干族系，因此臺(tái)灣早已不用這個(gè)稱呼。姑且按大陸漢語(yǔ)拼音寫(xiě)作GAOSHAN。）拉祜族LAHU/LADHULL水SHUI/SUI佤VA納西NAKHI羌QIANG土MONGUOR仫佬MULAO/MULAM錫伯XIBE/SIBE/SIBO柯?tīng)柨俗蜬YRGYZ/KHALKHAS達(dá)斡爾DAUR景頗JINGPO/JINGHPAW毛南MAONAN/ANAN撒拉SALAR布朗BLANG塔吉克TAJIK/TADZHIK阿昌ACHANG/NGACANG普米PUMI/PRIMI鄂溫克EVENK/EVENKI怒NU京KINH基諾JINO德昂DEANG/PALAUNG保安BONAN俄羅斯RUSSIAN裕固YUGHUR

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簡(jiǎn)介：精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔傾情為你奉上專心專注專業(yè)HOUSEHOLDREGISTERUNDERSUPERVISIONOFTHEMINISTRYOFPUBLICSECURITYOFPRCPOINTSFORATTENTION1THEHOUSEHOLDREGISTERHASALEGALFORCETOIDENTIFYTHESTATUSOFACITIZENANDTHERELATIONSHIPOFFAMILYMEMBERSITISAMAINBASISFORTHEHOUSEHOLDREGISTRATIONOFFICETOMAKERESIDENCEINVESTIGATIONANDCHECKWHENTHEHOUSEHOLDREGISTRATIONOFFICEMAKESRESIDENCEINVESTIGATIONANDCHECK,THEHOUSEHOLDERORANYONEOFTHEFAMILYMEMBERSSHALLBRINGFORTHONHIS/HEROWNINITIATIVETHEHOUSEHOLDREGISTER2THEHOUSEHOLDREGISTERSHALLBEUNDERPROPERKEEPOFTHEHOUSEHOLDERNOALTER,TRANSFERANDLEASEISALLOWEDTHELOSSOFTHEHOUSEHOLDREGISTERMUSTBEREPORTEDTOTHEHOUSEHOLDREGISTRATIONOFFICEPROMPTLY3ONLYTHEHOUSEHOLDREGISTRATIONOFFICEHASTHEPOWERTOMAKEREGISTRATIONONTHEHOUSEHOLDREGISTERNOANYOTHERUNITSANDINDIVIDUALSAREALLOWEDTOMAKEANYRECORDSONIT4ANYINCREASEORDECREASEOFFAMILYMEMBERSINTHEHOUSEHOLDORANYALTERATIONOFTHEREGISTRATIONITEMSSHALLBEREGISTEREDONTHEHOUSEHOLDREGISTERBYREPORTINGTOTHEHOUSEHOLDREGISTRATIONOFFICE5IFTHEWHOLEFAMILYHASMOVEDOUTOFTHEJURISDICTIONALAREAOFTHERESIDENCE,THEHOUSEHOLDREGISTERSHALLBESUBMITTEDTOTHEHOUSEHOLDREGISTRATIONOFFICEFORCANCELLATIONBASICINFORMATIONOFHOUSEHOLDRESIDENCETYPENONAGRICULTURERESIDENCENAMEOFTHEHOUSEOWNERRESIDENCENUMBERADDRESSCERTIFIEDSEALOFREGISTRATIONOFFICEPUBLICSECURITYBUREAUOFCHONGQINGSEALEDONLYFORHOUSEHOLDREGISTERCERTIFICATEAUTHORIZEDADMINISTRATORXIEJIAWANPOLICESTATIONSEALEDONLYFORHOUSEHOLDREGISTERCERTIFICATEREGISTRATIONOFFICERWANGHUAHUA（SEALED）ISSUEDATECOMMENTEDA1RIGHTS精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔傾情為你奉上專心專注專業(yè)CHANGEOFADDRESSREGISTRATIONCHANGEADDRESSDATEOFCHANGEREGISTRATIONOFFICERREGISTRATIONRECORDSFORTHERESIDENTNAMEOWNERORRELATIONSWITHTHEOWNERFORMERNAMEGENDERPLACEOFBIRTHETHNICGROUPHANNATIVEPLACEDATEOFBIRTHOTHERADDRESSRELIGIONCITIZENIDNOHEIGHTBLOODTYPEEDUCATIONLEVELMARITALSTATUSMILITARYSERVICECOMPANYOCCUPATIONPREVIOUSADDRESSANDTHEDATEOFMOVEINTOCITY/TOWNPREVIOUSADDRESSANDTHEDATEOFMOVINGINTOPRESENTADDRESSREGISTRATIONOFFICERISSUEDDATE

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簡(jiǎn)介：江蘇省蘇州市2021年中考一模英語(yǔ)試題精選匯編句子翻譯專題江蘇省常熟市2021年中考英語(yǔ)一模試題六、句子翻譯（共5小題；每小題3分，滿分15分）將下列句子翻譯成英語(yǔ)，并將所譯句子寫(xiě)在答題卷上標(biāo)有題號(hào)的橫線上。48LINDA離開(kāi)蘇州多久了▲49和你的鄰居友好相處是必要的。▲50我想知道這個(gè)節(jié)目是否會(huì)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)直播?！?1這個(gè)小女孩別無(wú)選擇只能向媽媽求助了?！?2大自然如此重要，我們應(yīng)該理智地保護(hù)它。▲48HOWLONGHASLINDABEENAWAYFROMSUZHOU49ITISNECESSARYTOGETONWELLWITHYOURNEIGHBOURS50IWONDERIFTHEPROGRAMWILLBECOVEREDLIVE51THELITTLEGIRLHADNOCHOICEBUTTOASKHERMOTHERFORHELP52NATUREISSOIMPORTANTTHATWESHOULDPROTECTITWISELY江蘇省蘇州市吳中、吳江、相城區(qū)2021年中考英語(yǔ)一模試題第六部分句子翻譯（共5小題；每小題3分,滿分15分）將下列句子譯成英語(yǔ),并將所譯句子寫(xiě)在答題卡標(biāo)有題號(hào)的橫線上。48他們找到了那個(gè)失蹤的小女孩嗎49學(xué)好英語(yǔ)能幫助我們更好地了解世界。50學(xué)生不允許將手機(jī)帶入教室。51,我不確定他是否對(duì)這個(gè)房間的顏色感到滿意。52袁隆平是如此偉大的一位科學(xué)家,我們都非常尊敬他。六、句子翻譯48HAVETHEYFOUNDTHEMISSINGLITTLEGIRL52中國(guó)在高速鐵路的建造上已經(jīng)取得了多么令人驚嘆的進(jìn)步啊48THATDOCTORISSOKINDTHATHEISALWAYSWILLINGTOHELPOTHERS49DON’TLEAVETHETAPON/RUNNINGWHENYOUBRUSH/AREBRUSHINGYOURTEETH50HEISNOTONLYTHEWISESTTEACHERINOURSCHOOL,BUTALSOOURCLOSESTFRIEND51NOWTHEIRGROUPAREDISCUSSINGWHETHERTHEPROJECTISWORTHCARRYINGON52WHATAMAZINGPROGRESSCHINAHASMADEINBUILDINGHIGHSPEEDRAILWAYS江蘇省蘇州市姑蘇區(qū)七校聯(lián)考2021年九年級(jí)第一次模擬英語(yǔ)試卷六、中譯英（本題共5小題；每小題3分，滿分15分）48這學(xué)期這個(gè)男孩在英語(yǔ)方面已經(jīng)取得了很大的進(jìn)步。▲49你能告訴我這樣潮濕的天氣將持續(xù)多久▲50他們寧愿依靠自己也不指望別人。▲51直到戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)爆發(fā)，他才被迫離開(kāi)了家鄉(xiāng)?！?2把這么多的時(shí)間投入到做慈善工作上是值得的?！⒅凶g英48THEBOYHASMADEGREAT/MUCHPROGRESSINENGLISHTHISTERM49CANYOUTELLMEHOWLONGSUCHWETWEATHERWILLLAST50THEYWOULDRATHERDEPENDONTHEMSELVESTHANEXPECTOTHERS51HEWASN’TFORCEDTOLEAVEHISHOMETOWNUNTILTHEWARBROKEOUT52ITISWORTHDEVOTINGSOMUCHTIMETODOINGCHARITYWORK

簡(jiǎn)介：外文原文ABSTRACTDIEDESIGNINGISADEMANDINGANDHARDWORK．TODESIGNASEPARATEDIEFOREACHPRODUCTISTIMECONSUMINGANDEXPENSIVETASK．THISPAPERPRESENTSANIDEAOFSETSOFSTANDARDREFERENCEDIES．ITGIVESACONCEPTOFFLEXIBLEDIEDESIGNINGUSINGAREFERENCESTANDARDDIEDESIGNEDINAPOPULARCOMMERCIALCAD／CAMSOFTWAREPRO／ENGINEER．RATHERTHANDESIGNINGASEPARATEDIEFOREACHPART，JUSTUPDATETHEDIEDESIGNBYSELECTINGTHEDIEDIMENSIONSASREQUIRED．THEUSEOFTHISCONCEPTWILLPROVETOREDUCETIMEANDCOSTOFPRODUCTINMANUFACTURINGINDUSTRY．KEYWORDSDIE；FLEXIBLEDIEDESIGNINGSYSTEM；STANDARDIZATION；PRO/E；SECONDARYDEVELOPMENTATPRESENT,THEINDUSTRIALDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESANDREGIONSINTHEMOLDINDUSTRYHASBEENGRADUALLYSTANDARDIZEANDSERIALIZATIONINCHINA,ALTHOUGHTHEMAJORITYDIEWITHINTHEENTERPRISESHAVEBUSINESSSTANDARDS,BUTGENERALLYNOTHIGHDEGREEOFSTANDARDIZATION,STANDARDIZATIONOFSTAMPINGDIEINTHEDIELIMITEDPARTSOFTHEPARTSTOACHIEVEREALSAVINGSSTAMPINGDIEDESIGNTIMEANDSHORTENTHEPROCESSINGCYCLE,COSTSAVINGS,REDUCEDESIGNANDMANUFACTURINGSTAFFWORKLOADPURPOSES,ITNEEDSTODEVELOPAFLEXIBLESTAMPINGDIEDESIGNSYSTEMATTHESAMETIME,STAMPINGDIESERIALIZATIONOFTHESCOPEOFSTANDARDIZATIONANDCANNOTBECONFINEDTODIEPARTOFTHEFIXEDPANELS,BOARDS,THETOPPLATEUNLOADINGDEVICECOMMONLYUSEDCOMPONENTSSUCHASSTAMPINGOREVENDIESTRUCTURE,WESHOULDACHIEVESERIALIZATIONANDSTANDARDIZATIONASCAD/CAMTECHNOLOGYINTHEDESIGNANDMANUFACTUREDIEINTHECOURSEOFEXTENSIVEAPPLICATION,ITSHOULDFIRSTBESTANDARDIZEDSTAMPINGDIEFROMTHECADSYSTEMBEGANSOMELARGESCALECOMMERCIALIZATIONOFTHECAD/CAMSOFTWARE,SUCHASPRO/E,UG,ANDSOONHAVEDEVELOPEDASPECIALIZEDINJECTIONMOLDDESIGNPACKAGEANDSTAMPINGDIEDESIGNFORTHESPECIALSOFTWARE,USERSNEEDTOBEDEVELOPEDLTHEAPPLICATIONTOOLSPRO/EINSTAMPINGDIEDESIGNFLEXIBILITYINTHESYSTEMDEVELOPMENTPRO/ENGINEERBYTHEUNITEDSTATESHASDEVELOPEDASETOFPTCCAD/CAM/CAESOFTWAREPRO/EUSINGASINGLEDATABASEANDFEATUREBASED,THEDESIGNPARAMETERSOFTHEMODEL,PROVIDESUSERSWITH1THEDEVELOPMENTISVERYCONVENIENTFORSTAMPINGDIEFLEXIBLESYSTEMOFTOOLSJUICE11FAMILYTABLEFANAILYFABLEKNOWNASTHEFAMILYTABLE,THESTRUCTUREUSEDTOCREATETHESAMEORSIMILARPARTSOFTHESIZEANDCHARACTERISTICSOFTHESTANDARDIZEDDATABASETABLES,ISDEVOTEDTOTHEESTABLISHMENTOFASTANDARDPARTSLIBRARYTOOLTHEUSEOFTHEFORMERPARTSRELATIONSBETWEENTHEASSEMBLYANDPARTSASSEMBLYINTHEPRESENCEOFMIDDLEANUMBEROFFEATURES13PRO／PROGRAMPRO/PROGRAMPROGRAMISTHEPRO/EOFAPROCEDURALTOOL,SIMILARTOITSGRAMMARVBAANDOFFICESOFTWAREINTHEMACROACERWHENUSERSUSEOFPRO/ENGINEERTODESIGNTHEPRODUCTOFVARIOUSKINDSOFINFORMATIONTODOCUMENTTHEFORMATWILLBERECORDEDTHROUGHTHEPRO/PROGRANDOCUMENTEDITING,CANBEACHIEVEDONTHECHARACTERISTICSOFTHEHIDE,DELETEANDREORDERTHEASSEMBLYOFCOMPONENTSTOADDANDREPLACEMENTOPERATIONTHESEFEATURESSTAMPINGDIESFORTHEESTABLISHMENTOFSTANDARDPARTSLIBRARY,STANDARDSANDFLEXIBLEDESIGNSTRUCTUREOFTHESYSTEMISVERYUSEFULPROGRAMFILESINTHESTRUCTURECANBEBROADLYCLASSIFIEDINTOTHETITLE,SETOFPARAMETERSRELATIONSHIP,TOADDFEATURESPARTSANDUPDATINGTHEQUALITYATTRIBUTES,SUCHASFIVEPARTSIN“INPUTENDINPUT“XIAOLOCATEDBETWEENTHEPARAMETERSOFTHE“RE1ATIONSENDREALATIONS“RELATIONSBETWEENTHEVARIOUSADDINTHE“ADDENDADD“ANDADDEDFEATURESPARTMODULEORPARTSASSEMBLYMODULEPRO/PROGRAMPROVIDESTHREETYPESOFPARAMETERSNUMBERNUMERICALSTRINGSTRINGANDYESNOIT2STANDARDSMOLDBASEOFTHEDEVELOPMENT21STANDARDSMOLDBASECLASSIFICATIONANDORGANIZATIONSDIESTAMPINGDIEISANIMPORTANTPARTTHETYPICALMODELTHEREARETHREETYPESREARGUIDEDMODEBACKPILLARSETS,THEMIDDLEGUIDEDMODECENTERPILLARSETSANDTHEGUIDEDMODEANGLEDIAGONALPILLARSETSEACHTYPEOFDIEALSOINCLUDESAVARIETYOFSPECIFICATIONSACCORDINGTODIEBOUNDARYDEMARCATIONSIZE,REARGUIDED,INALB22SPECIFICATIONS,D0SPECIFICATIONS6LB,MIDDLEGUIDED,INTHENINED0SPECIFICATIONS,THEGUIDEDMODEKOKLBSPECIFICATIONS723INORDERTOFACILITATETHEMANAGEMENTANDDATACALLS,THESTANDARDMODEOFTHEDIRECTORYOFTHEBESTESTABLISHEDINTHEPRO/EINSTALLATIONDIRECTORYASTHREECATEGORIESTHELARGERSTRUCTURALDIFFERENCES,ITMAYDIETHEROOTOFTHEESTABLISHMENTOFTHREEOTHERSUBDIRECTORIES,EACHSUBDIRECTORYCONTAINSALLTHECOMPONENTPARTSMODE,ANDEACHTYPEOFPARTSCANBEADOPTEDPRO/ESOFTWAREFORTHEFAMILYTABLE,ANDTOOLS

簡(jiǎn)介：精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔傾情為你奉上專心專注專業(yè)外文出處MANUFACTURINGENGINEERINGANDTECHNOLOGYMACHINING外文原文MANIPULATORROBOTDEVELOPEDINRECENTDECADESASHIGHTECHAUTOMATEDPRODUCTIONEQUIPMENTINDUSTRIALROBOTISANIMPORTANTBRANCHOFINDUSTRIALROBOTSITFEATURESCANBEPROGRAMMEDTOPERFORMTASKSINAVARIETYOFEXPECTATIONS,INBOTHSTRUCTUREANDPERFORMANCEADVANTAGESOFTHEIROWNPEOPLEANDMACHINES,INPARTICULAR,REFLECTSTHEPEOPLESINTELLIGENCEANDADAPTABILITYTHEACCURACYOFROBOTOPERATIONSANDAVARIETYOFENVIRONMENTSTHEABILITYTOCOMPLETETHEWORKINTHEFIELDOFNATIONALECONOMYANDTHEREAREBROADPROSPECTSFORDEVELOPMENTWITHTHEDEVELOPMENTOFINDUSTRIALAUTOMATION,THEREHASBEENCNCMACHININGCENTER,ITISINREDUCINGLABORINTENSITY,WHILEGREATLYIMPROVEDLABORPRODUCTIVITYHOWEVER,THEUPPERANDLOWERCOMMONINCNCMACHININGPROCESSESMATERIAL,USUALLYSTILLUSEMANUALORTRADITIONALRELAYCONTROLLEDSEMIAUTOMATICDEVICETHEFORMERTIMECONSUMINGANDLABORINTENSIVE,INEFFICIENTTHELATTERDUETODESIGNCOMPLEXITY,REQUIREMORERELAYS,WIRINGCOMPLEXITY,VULNERABILITYTOBODYVIBRATIONINTERFERENCE,WHILETHEEXISTENCEOFPOORRELIABILITY,FAULTMOREMAINTENANCEPROBLEMSANDOTHERISSUESPROGRAMMABLELOGICCONTROLLERPLCCONTROLLEDROBOTCONTROLSYSTEMFORMATERIALSUPANDDOWNMOVEMENTISSIMPLE,CIRCUITDESIGNISREASONABLE,WITHASTRONGANTIJAMMINGCAPABILITY,ENSURINGTHESYSTEMSRELIABILITY,REDUCEDMAINTENANCERATE,ANDIMPROVEWORKEFFICIENCYROBOTTECHNOLOGYRELATEDTOMECHANICS,MECHANICS,ELECTRICALHYDRAULICTECHNOLOGY,AUTOMATICCONTROLTECHNOLOGY,SENSORTECHNOLOGYANDCOMPUTERTECHNOLOGYANDOTHERFIELDSOFSCIENCE,ISACROSSDISCIPLINARYINTEGRATEDTECHNOLOGYFIRST,ANOVERVIEWOFINDUSTRIALMANIPULATORROBOTISAKINDOFPOSITIONINGCONTROLCANBEAUTOMATEDANDCANBEREPROGRAMMEDTOCHANGEINMULTIFUNCTIONALMACHINE,WHICHHASMULTIPLEDEGREESOFFREEDOMCANBEUSEDTOCARRYANOBJECTINORDERTOCOMPLETETHEWORKINDIFFERENTENVIRONMENTSLOWWAGESINCHINA,PLASTICPRODUCTSINDUSTRY,ALTHOUGHSTILLALABORINTENSIVE,MECHANICALHANDUSEHASBECOMEINCREASINGLYPOPULARELECTRONICSANDAUTOMOTIVEINDUSTRIESTHATEUROPEANDTHEUNITEDSTATESMULTINATIONALCOMPANIESVERYEARLYINTHEIRFACTORIESINCHINA,THEINTRODUCTIONOFAUTOMATEDPRODUCTIONBUTNOWTHECHANGESARETHOSEFOUNDININDUSTRIALINTENSIVESOUTHCHINA,EASTCHINASCOASTALAREAS,LOCALPLASTICPROCESSINGPLANTSHAVEALSOEMERGEDINMECHANICALWATCHESBEGANTOBECOMEINCREASINGLYINTERESTEDIN,BECAUSETHEYHAVETOFACEAH精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔傾情為你奉上專心專注專業(yè)NDTOTHESTRUCTUREOFTHEENTIREPNEUMATICSYSTEMSIZEINCREASEDWITHPNEUMATICDRIVEANDCOMPAREWITHOTHERENERGYSOURCESDRIVEHASTHEFOLLOWINGADVANTAGESAIRINEXHAUSTIBLE,USEDLATERDISCHARGEDINTOTHEATMOSPHERE,WITHOUTRECYCLINGANDDISPOSAL,DONOTPOLLUTETHEENVIRONMENTACCIDENTALORASMALLAMOUNTOFLEAKAGEWOULDNOTBEASERIOUSIMPACTONPRODUCTIONVISCOSITYOFAIRISSMALL,THEPIPELINEPRESSURELOSSALSOISVERYSMALL,EASYLONGDISTANCETRANSPORTTHELOWERWORKINGPRESSUREOFCOMPRESSEDAIR,PNEUMATICCOMPONENTSANDTHEREFORETHEMATERIALANDMANUFACTURINGACCURACYREQUIREMENTSCANBELOWEREDINGENERAL,RECIPROCATINGTHRUSTIN1TO2TONSPNEUMATICECONOMYISBETTERCOMPAREDWITHTHEHYDRAULICTRANSMISSION,ANDITSFASTERACTIONANDREACTION,WHICHISONEOFTHEOUTSTANDINGMERITSOFPNEUMATICCLEANAIRMEDIUM,ITWILLNOTDEGENERATE,NOTEASYTOPLUGTHEPIPELINEITCANBESAFELYUSEDINFLAMMABLE,EXPLOSIVEANDTHEDUSTBIGOCCASIONSALSOEASYTOREALIZEAUTOMATICOVERLOADPROTECTIONSECOND,THECOMPOSITION,MECHANICALHANDROBOTINTHEFORMOFAVARIETYOFFORMS,SOMERELATIVELYSIMPLE,SOMEMORECOMPLICATED,BUTTHEBASICFORMISTHESAMEASTHECOMPOSITIONOFTHE,USUALLYBYTHEIMPLEMENTINGAGENCIES,TRANSMISSIONSYSTEMS,CONTROLSYSTEMSANDAUXILIARYDEVICESCOMPOSED1IMPLEMENTINGAGENCIESMANIPULATOREXECUTINGAGENCYBYTHEHANDS,WRISTS,ARMS,PILLARSHANDSARECRAWLINGINSTITUTIONS,ISUSEDTOCLAMPANDRELEASETHEWORKPIECE,ANDSIMILARTOHUMANFINGERS,TOCOMPLETETHESTAFFINGOFSIMILARACTIONSWRISTANDFINGERSANDTHEARMCONNECTINGTHECOMPONENTSCANBEUPANDDOWN,LEFT,ANDROTARYMOVEMENTASIMPLEMECHANICALHANDCANNOTWRISTPILLARSUSEDTOSUPPORTTHEARMCANALSOBEMADEMOBILEASNEEDED2TRANSMISSIONTHEACTUATORTOBEACHIEVEDBYTHETRANSMISSIONSYSTEMSUBTRANSMISSIONSYSTEMCOMMONLYUSEDMANIPULATORMECHANICALTRANSMISSION,HYDRAULICTRANSMISSION,PNEUMATICANDELECTRICPOWERTRANSMISSIONANDOTHERDRIVESEVERALFORMS3CONTROLSYSTEMMANIPULATORCONTROLSYSTEMSMAINROLEISTOCONTROLTHEROBOTACCORDINGTOCERTAINPROCEDURES,DIRECTION,POSITION,SPEEDOFACTION,ASIMPLEMECHANICALHANDISGENERALLYNOTSETUPADEDICATEDCONTROLSYSTEM,USINGONLYTRIPSWITCHES,RELAYS,CONTROLVALVESANDCIRCUITSCANBEACHIEVEDDYNAMICDRIVESYSTEMCONTROL,SOTHATIMPLEMENTINGAGENCIESACCORDINGTOTHEREQUIREMENTSOFACTIONACTIO

簡(jiǎn)介：外文出處ELLEKILDE,L,CHRISTENSEN,HI2009CONTROLOFMOBILEMANIPULATORUSINGTHEDYNAMICALSYSTEMSAPPROACHROBOTICSANDAUTOMATION,ICRA09,IEEEINTERNATIONALCONFERENCEONPP13701376IEEE機(jī)械臂動(dòng)力學(xué)與控制的研究機(jī)械臂動(dòng)力學(xué)與控制的研究拉斯彼得ELLEKILDE摘要摘要操作器和移動(dòng)平臺(tái)的組合提供了一種可用于廣泛應(yīng)用程序高效靈活的操作系統(tǒng),特別是在服務(wù)性機(jī)器人領(lǐng)域。在機(jī)械臂眾多挑戰(zhàn)中其中之一是確保機(jī)器人在潛在的動(dòng)態(tài)環(huán)境中安全工作控制系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)。在本文中,我們將介紹移動(dòng)機(jī)械臂用動(dòng)力學(xué)系統(tǒng)方法被控制的使用方法。該方法是一種二級(jí)方法,是使用競(jìng)爭(zhēng)動(dòng)力學(xué)對(duì)于統(tǒng)籌協(xié)調(diào)優(yōu)化移動(dòng)平臺(tái)以及較低層次的融合避障和目標(biāo)捕獲行為的方法。I介紹介紹在過(guò)去的幾十年里大多數(shù)機(jī)器人的研究主要關(guān)注在移動(dòng)平臺(tái)或操作系統(tǒng)，并且在這兩個(gè)領(lǐng)域取得了許多可喜的成績(jī)。今天的新挑戰(zhàn)之一是將這兩個(gè)領(lǐng)域組合在一起形成具有高效移動(dòng)和有能力操作環(huán)境的系統(tǒng)。特別是服務(wù)性機(jī)器人將會(huì)在這一方面系統(tǒng)需求的增加。大多數(shù)西方國(guó)家的人口統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)量顯示需要照顧的老人在不斷增加,盡管將有很少的工作實(shí)際的支持他們。這就需要增強(qiáng)服務(wù)業(yè)的自動(dòng)化程度，因此機(jī)器人能夠在室內(nèi)動(dòng)態(tài)環(huán)境中安全的工作是最基本的。A相關(guān)工作動(dòng)力學(xué)系統(tǒng)接近5，6為控制機(jī)器人提供一套動(dòng)作的框架，例如障礙退避和目標(biāo)捕捉。每個(gè)動(dòng)作通過(guò)一套一個(gè)非線性動(dòng)力學(xué)系統(tǒng)的ATTRACTORS和REPELLORS來(lái)完成。這些通過(guò)向量場(chǎng)的簡(jiǎn)單的加法被結(jié)合在一起來(lái)完成系統(tǒng)的整體動(dòng)作。動(dòng)力系統(tǒng)的方法涉及到更廣泛的應(yīng)用勢(shì)場(chǎng)法7，但具有一定的優(yōu)勢(shì)。這里勢(shì)場(chǎng)法的行為是由后場(chǎng)梯度形成的結(jié)果，行為變量，如航向和速度，可直接運(yùn)用動(dòng)力系統(tǒng)控制的方法。成本相對(duì)較低的計(jì)算與方法有關(guān)，使得它在動(dòng)態(tài)環(huán)境中在線控制適宜，允許它即使在相當(dāng)?shù)偷乃接邢薜挠?jì)算能力平臺(tái)8實(shí)施。傳感器的魯棒性在人聲嘈雜中顯示9和10其中一個(gè)是由紅外傳感器和麥克風(fēng)的結(jié)合，當(dāng)避障和目標(biāo)獲取時(shí)使用。盡管能解決各種各樣的任務(wù)，但它僅是一個(gè)局部的方法，為了其他的任務(wù)和使命級(jí)計(jì)劃即參見(jiàn)11其他的方法應(yīng)該被采用。當(dāng)多行為被結(jié)合時(shí)，在5和6的缺點(diǎn)是由潛在的假的因子引起的。為了克服這個(gè)問(wèn)題12介紹了一種基于競(jìng)爭(zhēng)動(dòng)態(tài)的行為比重。每個(gè)行為的影響是控制使用一個(gè)相關(guān)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)，再加上定義的行為之間有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的相互作用，控制重物。如果所有的行為之間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性相互作用是必需的，這種方法可以推廣到任意數(shù)N，行為，除了這樣一個(gè)最壞情況的復(fù)雜度。??2N?在現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中使用這種方法的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)態(tài)勢(shì)室內(nèi)實(shí)驗(yàn)中可以找到13，14。13是只在有標(biāo)題方向的車輛上使用，而在14中航向和速度均得到控制。15提供了一個(gè)為速度性能簡(jiǎn)短的策略討論。在16中提到動(dòng)力系統(tǒng)的方法不僅被用于平面移動(dòng)機(jī)器人，同時(shí)也可以作為控制機(jī)械手工具。另外運(yùn)用產(chǎn)生極限環(huán)HOPF振蕩器動(dòng)力系統(tǒng)的更復(fù)雜的動(dòng)力系統(tǒng)也可被使用。17展現(xiàn)出不同形狀的極限環(huán)是如何產(chǎn)生的，其可運(yùn)用于避障軌跡的生成。18中介紹到使用HOPF振蕩器產(chǎn)生一個(gè)定時(shí)的軌跡，實(shí)現(xiàn)了機(jī)械手可以接住從桌子上面滾下來(lái)的球。動(dòng)力系統(tǒng)的方法不僅可以用于控制的工具，也可以控制7自由度機(jī)械手多余的動(dòng)作這一點(diǎn)在19中得到論證。II總體結(jié)構(gòu)我們整個(gè)系統(tǒng)的整體架構(gòu)如圖2所示。在賽格威平臺(tái)中為了控制移動(dòng)平臺(tái)，兩個(gè)低級(jí)別的性能被使用一個(gè)用于目標(biāo)捕獲和另一個(gè)是避障。運(yùn)用競(jìng)爭(zhēng)動(dòng)態(tài)的動(dòng)作被混合在

簡(jiǎn)介：外文文獻(xiàn)PROJECTCOSTCONTROLTHEWAYITWORKSBYRMAXWIDEMANINARECENTCONSULTINGASSIGNMENTWEREALIZEDTHATTHEREWASSOMELACKOFUNDERSTANDINGOFTHEWHOLESYSTEMOFPROJECTCOSTCONTROL,HOWITISSETUPANDAPPLIEDSOWEDECIDEDTOWRITEUPADESCRIPTIONOFHOWITWORKSPROJECTCOSTCONTROLISNOTTHATDIFFICULTTOFOLLOWINTHEORYFIRSTYOUESTABLISHASETOFREFERENCEBASELINESTHEN,ASWORKPROGRESSES,YOUMONITORTHEWORK,ANALYZETHEFINDINGS,FORECASTTHEENDRESULTSANDCOMPARETHOSEWITHTHEREFERENCEBASELINESIFTHEENDRESULTSARENOTSATISFACTORYTHENYOUMAKEADJUSTMENTSASNECESSARYTOTHEWORKINPROGRESS,ANDREPEATTHECYCLEATSUITABLEINTERVALSIFTHEENDRESULTSGETREALLYOUTOFLINEWITHTHEBASELINEPLAN,YOUMAYHAVETOCHANGETHEPLANMORELIKELY,THEREWILLBEORHAVEBEENSCOPECHANGESTHATCHANGETHEREFERENCEBASELINESWHICHMEANSTHATEVERYTIMETHATHAPPENSYOUHAVETOCHANGETHEBASELINEPLANANYWAYBUTPROJECTCOSTCONTROLISALOTMOREDIFFICULTTODOINPRACTICE,ASISEVIDENCEDBYTHENUMBEROFPROJECTSTHATFAILTOCONTAINCOSTSITALSOINVOLVESASIGNIFICANTAMOUNTOFWORK,ASWESHALLSEE,ANDWEMIGHTASWELLSTARTATTHEBEGINNINGSOLETUSFOLLOWTHETHREADOFPROJECTCOSTCONTROLTHROUGHTHEENTIREPROJECTLIFESPANAND,WHILEWEAREATIT,WEWILLTAKETHEOPPORTUNITYTOPOINTOUTTHEPROPERPLACESFORSEVERALSIGNIFICANTDOCUMENTSTHESEINCLUDETHEBUSINESSCASE,THEREQUESTFORACAPITALAPPROPRIATIONFOREXECUTION,WORKPACKAGESANDTHEWORKBREAKDOWNSTRUCTURE,THEPROJECTCHARTERORBRIEF,THEPROJECTBUDGETORCOSTPLAN,EARNEDVALUEANDTHECOSTBASELINEALLOFTHESECONTRIBUTETOTHEORGANIZATIONSABILITYTOEFFECTIVELYCONTROLPROJECTCOSTSFOOTNOTEIAMINDEBTEDTOMYFRIENDQUENTINFLEMING,THEGURUOFEARNEDVALUE,FORCHECKINGANDCORRECTINGMYWORKONTHISTOPICTHEBUSINESSCASEANDAPPLICATIONFOREXECUTIONFUNDINGITISIMPORTANTTONOTETHATPROJECTCOSTCONTROLISMOSTEFFECTIVEWHENTHEEXECUTIVEMANAGEMENTRESPONSIBLEHASAGOODUNDERSTANDINGOFHOWPROJECTSSHOULDUNFOLDTHROUGHTHEPROJECTLIFESPANTHISMEANSTHATTHEYEXERCISETHEIRRESPONSIBILITIESATTHEKEYDECISIONPOINTSTHEPROJECTMANAGEMENTPLAN,PROJECTBRIEFORPROJECTCHARTERIFTHEDELIVERABLECONSISTSOFANUMBEROFDIFFERENTELEMENTS,THESEAREIDENTIFIEDANDASSEMBLEDINTOWORKPACKAGESWPSANDPRESENTEDINTHEFORMOFAWORKBREAKDOWNSTRUCTUREWBSEACHWPINVOLVESASETOFACTIVITIES,THE“WORK“THATISPLANNEDANDSCHEDULEDASAPARTOFTHEPROJECTMANAGEMENTPLANNOTE,HOWEVER,THATTHEPLANNINGWILLSTILLBEATARELATIVELYHIGHLEVEL,ANDMOREDETAILEDPLANNINGWILLBENECESSARYDURINGEXECUTIONIFTHEPROJECTISGIVENTHEGOAHEADTHISPROJECTMANAGEMENTPLAN,BYTHEWAY,SHOULDBECOMETHE“BIBLE“FORTHEEXECUTIONPHASEOFTHEPROJECTANDISSOMETIMESREFERREDTOASTHE“PROJECTBRIEF“ORTHE“PROJECTCHARTER“THECOSTOFDOINGTHEVARIOUSACTIVITIESISTHENESTIMATEDANDTHESEESTIMATEDCOSTSAREAGGREGATEDTODETERMINETHEESTIMATEDCOSTOFTHEWPTHISAPPROACHISKNOWNAS“DETAILEDESTIMATING“OR“BOTTOMUPESTIMATING“THEREAREOTHERAPPROACHESTOESTIMATINGTHATWELLCOMETOINAMINUTEEITHERWAY,THERESULTISANESTIMATEDCOSTOFTHETOTALWORKOFTHEPROJECTNOTETHATPROJECTRISKMANAGEMENTPLANNINGISANIMPORTANTPARTOFTHISEXERCISETHISSHOULDEXAMINETHEPROJECTSASSUMPTIONSANDENVIRONMENTALCONDITIONSTOIDENTIFYANYWEAKNESSESINTHEPLANTHUSFAR,ANDIDENTIFYTHOSEPOTENTIALRISKEVENTSTHATWARRANTATTENTIONFORMITIGATIONTHISMIGHTTAKETHEFORMOFSPECIFICCONTINGENCYPLANNING,AND/ORTHESETTINGASIDEOFPRUDENTFUNDINGRESERVESREQUESTFORCAPITALCONVERTINGTHEESTIMATEHOWEVER,ANESTIMATEOFTHEWORKALONEISNOTSUFFICIENTFORACAPITALREQUESTTOARRIVEATACAPITALREQUESTSOMECONVERSIONISNECESSARY,FOREXAMPLE,BYADDINGPRUDENTALLOWANCESSUCHASOVERHEADS,ACONTINGENCYALLOWANCETOCOVERNORMALPROJECTRISKSANDMANAGEMENTRESERVESTOCOVERUNKNOWNSANDPOSSIBLESCOPECHANGESINADDITION,ITMAYBENECESSARYTOCONVERTTHEESTIMATINGDATAINTOAFINANCIALACCOUNTINGFORMATTHATSATISFIESTHECORPORATEORSPONSORSFORMATFORPURPOSESOFCOMPARISONWITHOTHERPROJECTSANDCONSEQUENTFUNDINGAPPROVALINPRACTICEALLTHEDATAFORTHETYPEOF“BOTTOMUP“APPROACHJUSTDESCRIBEDMAYNOTBEAVAILABLEINTHISCASEALTERNATIVEESTIMATINGAPPROACHESAREADOPTEDTHATPROVIDEVARIOUSDEGREESOFRELIABILITYINA“TOPDOWN“FASHIONFOREXAMPLE

簡(jiǎn)介：史通六家譯文自古以來(lái)稱帝稱王的人編輯著述文章典籍的情況，在史通外篇古今正史篇中已經(jīng)詳細(xì)地介紹它們了。從古到今，實(shí)質(zhì)內(nèi)容與外在形式交替變化；各種史書(shū)的創(chuàng)作，不拘泥在同一種史書(shū)體上。加以探討以后做出結(jié)論，這些史書(shū)的流派有六種第一叫做尚書(shū)流派，第二叫做春秋流派，第三叫做左傳流派，第四叫做國(guó)語(yǔ)流派，第五叫做史記流派，第六叫做漢書(shū)流派。現(xiàn)在就簡(jiǎn)略地陳述一下六大流派的旨義，在后面將它們列舉出來(lái)。尚書(shū)流派的史書(shū)，它的誕生產(chǎn)生于遠(yuǎn)古。易經(jīng)上說(shuō)“黃河出現(xiàn)背上有圖形的龍馬，洛水出現(xiàn)背上有圖形的神，圣人仿照它制作八卦、文字?！彼灾罆?shū)的起源由來(lái)已久了。到孔子時(shí)在周王室觀看書(shū)，得到虞（舜）、夏、商、周四代的典籍，于是刪取其中較好的部分，確定為尚書(shū)一百篇。漢代孔安國(guó)說(shuō)“因?yàn)樗巧瞎艜r(shí)期的書(shū)籍，所以叫它尚書(shū)。”尚書(shū)璇璣鈐說(shuō)“尚是上的意思。上天降下日月星變化的跡象，顯示節(jié)令的順序季節(jié)變化的度數(shù)，如同天體的運(yùn)行一樣?！比龂?guó)王肅說(shuō)“君上所說(shuō)的話，在下面被史官記載下來(lái)，所以叫做尚書(shū)?！边@三種說(shuō)法，它們的意義各不相同。大概書(shū)的主要旨義，本始于發(fā)號(hào)令；是用來(lái)宣揚(yáng)以仁義治理天下的正當(dāng)?shù)览?，向臣子屬下發(fā)布言論。所以尚書(shū)所記載的，都是典章、謀議、訓(xùn)誡、誥令、誓詞、冊(cè)命等六方面的文字。至于堯典、舜典這二種典章，徑直敘述人事；禹貢這一篇，記載的都是地理知識(shí)；洪范篇是概括敘述災(zāi)害祥瑞；顧命篇陳述的全都是喪葬禮儀這五篇也都是作為記言史書(shū)體例不純粹的部分。又有一部周書(shū)，和尚書(shū)的體裁相類似，也就是孔子刪削一百篇以外的周朝典籍，總共是七十一章。上起自周文王，周武王，下終于周靈王、周景王。大多都嚴(yán)明恰當(dāng)、切實(shí)忠誠(chéng)，言辭莊重高雅擁有正大的道理；有時(shí)也有膚淺的平庸之言，污濁不堪的東西相列參錯(cuò)，大概好象后來(lái)喜歡多事的人所增添的。至于職方篇的言論，與周禮的記載沒(méi)有什么區(qū)別；時(shí)訓(xùn)篇的敘述，與禮記月令篇相比大多相同。這都是歷代帝王經(jīng)、史一類的典籍，是詩(shī)、書(shū)、禮、易、春秋等五部分儒家經(jīng)典的單獨(dú)撰述。自從周王朝衰落下去以后，書(shū)這種記言體例于是被廢止。一直到漢、魏時(shí)期，沒(méi)有能夠繼承這種史書(shū)體例的人。直到東晉廣陵相魯國(guó)人孔衍，認(rèn)為國(guó)史是因來(lái)表彰言論行為、昭示法規(guī)制度的東西，至于做人的道德規(guī)范，常有的事情，不值得詳細(xì)列舉，于是刪取漢、魏時(shí)期的各種史書(shū)，選取其中美好動(dòng)聽(tīng)的詞句、典文有據(jù)的言辭、足以作為借鑒的內(nèi)容，確定它們的篇章順序，纂寫(xiě)成獨(dú)立的一種史書(shū)體裁。由此便有漢尚書(shū)、后漢尚書(shū)、漢魏尚書(shū)的創(chuàng)作，總共是二十六卷。到了隋朝秘書(shū)監(jiān)太原人王劭，又記錄開(kāi)皇、仁壽時(shí)期的史事，按次序?qū)λ鼈冞M(jìn)行編排，按照類別相互統(tǒng)屬，各自確立它們的篇目，編纂成隋書(shū)八十卷。探尋該書(shū)著書(shū)的主旨和體例，全都是以尚書(shū)作為仿效標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。推究尚書(shū)所記載的內(nèi)容，像君主臣子之間的相互對(duì)話，如果言詞意旨可以稱贊，那么一時(shí)的言論，篇篇都接連記載；如果言論不值得記載，話語(yǔ)沒(méi)有能夠稱述的，像這些過(guò)去的事情，即使有所脫漏省略，而閱讀的人卻不認(rèn)為這種作法是錯(cuò)的。等到隋朝中期以后，文獻(xiàn)典籍大豐富了，一定要剪裁取當(dāng)代的史文，效法古書(shū)的編纂方法，記載事情并不是改變了作法，而道理上卻似乎有些像守株待兔一樣墨守成規(guī)。所以孔衍所撰寫(xiě)的漢尚書(shū)、后漢尚書(shū)、漢魏尚書(shū)等尚書(shū)體著作不能流傳于社會(huì)了。至于稱帝稱王的人沒(méi)有本紀(jì)，三公九卿缺少傳記，就會(huì)使紀(jì)年月份失去順序，官爵和鄉(xiāng)里難以周詳。這都是以前所忽視，而當(dāng)今所要重視的，比如王劭的隋書(shū)，雖然想要仿效商書(shū)、周書(shū)，效法虞書(shū)、夏書(shū)，考察該書(shū)的體例，竟然與三國(guó)王肅所撰孔子家語(yǔ)、臨川王劉義慶所撰世說(shuō)新語(yǔ)相類似，可以說(shuō)是“畫(huà)虎沒(méi)有畫(huà)成卻反而像條狗”了。所以王劭的隋書(shū)在隋代受人嗤笑，確實(shí)是有原因的啊。左傳編年體例，把它作為編纂史書(shū)奉行的準(zhǔn)則。國(guó)語(yǔ)流派的史書(shū)，它的產(chǎn)生也起源于左丘明。左丘明著作春秋內(nèi)傳即左傳后，又搜稽左傳逸漏的史文，纂集那些其它的觀點(diǎn)，分為周、魯、齊、晉、鄭、楚、吳、越八國(guó)，記事起自于周穆王，結(jié)束于魯?shù)抗?，另外著作了春秋外傳，即?guó)語(yǔ)，加起來(lái)是二十一篇。國(guó)語(yǔ)的史文主要仿照春秋內(nèi)傳；有的重復(fù)出現(xiàn)而與左傳略有不同。然而自古以來(lái)著名的儒家學(xué)者東漢賈逵、三國(guó)魏王肅、三國(guó)吳虞翻、三國(guó)吳韋昭等人，都引申加以注釋，研讀其書(shū)的章節(jié)句讀。這也是詩(shī)、書(shū)禮、易、春秋、樂(lè)六經(jīng)同一流派，春秋三傳的繼承者。等到戰(zhàn)國(guó)合縱連橫的主張相繼誕生，諸侯武力作戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)著稱雄，秦朝最終兼并天下，于是著作了戰(zhàn)國(guó)策。它的篇目有東周、西周、秦、齊、燕、楚、三晉（韓、趙、魏）、宋、衛(wèi)、中山，加起來(lái)是十二國(guó)，分為三十三卷。之所以稱之為策，大概只是記錄而不評(píng)論它，所以就用策作為它簡(jiǎn)化的名稱。有人說(shuō)漢代劉向認(rèn)為是戰(zhàn)國(guó)游說(shuō)之士為合縱連橫出謀劃策，所以叫它戰(zhàn)國(guó)策。到了漢朝孔衍時(shí)，又認(rèn)為戰(zhàn)國(guó)策所記載的不能盡善盡美，于是援引太史公司馬遷的記載，比較史記和戰(zhàn)國(guó)策的不同與相同，刪削這二種史書(shū)，匯聚成一種記載，起名稱叫做春秋后語(yǔ)。除掉東周、西周二周和宋、衛(wèi)、中山四國(guó)史事，它所保留的只是剩下的秦、齊、燕、楚、三晉七國(guó)罷了。春秋后語(yǔ)記事起自于秦孝公，結(jié)束于楚漢之際，和春秋相比，也敘述完了二百四十多年的往事。開(kāi)始時(shí)孔衍撰寫(xiě)了春秋時(shí)國(guó)語(yǔ)，后來(lái)又撰寫(xiě)了春秋后語(yǔ)，編成這二部書(shū)，各自分為十卷。如今在社會(huì)上流傳的，只有春秋后語(yǔ)得以保存下來(lái)?？疾齑呵锖笳Z(yǔ)的序中說(shuō)“即使左丘明本人也不能超過(guò)該書(shū)?！笔郎系娜硕贾肛?zé)孔衍不能估量自己能力，不會(huì)評(píng)估自己的德行。探尋孔衍這句話的意思，把自己的春秋后語(yǔ)同左丘明的相比較的，應(yīng)當(dāng)是指國(guó)語(yǔ)，而不是指春秋內(nèi)傳即左傳。一定要比較就要把同一類別放在一起才行，怎能對(duì)孔衍多加嘲笑呢正當(dāng)漢朝政權(quán)失掉統(tǒng)治人民的能力，各路英雄豪杰角逐力量時(shí)，西晉人司馬彪又記錄那時(shí)發(fā)生過(guò)的事情，于是著作了九州春秋，冀、徐、兗、青、荊、揚(yáng)、涼、益、幽九州各寫(xiě)成一篇，加起來(lái)共是九卷。探討它的體例，也是近代的國(guó)語(yǔ)了。自從曹魏遷都許昌，定都洛陽(yáng)，魏蜀吳三國(guó)像鼎足一樣峙立；東晉建都長(zhǎng)江、淮河的分界建康時(shí)，國(guó)家分裂；那時(shí)的國(guó)君雖然名號(hào)也與稱王天下的人相同，而在占地上卻實(shí)際上等同于割據(jù)一方的諸侯。各分裂據(jù)政權(quán)管轄下的史官，記錄它們的國(guó)家事情；寫(xiě)紀(jì)傳體裁的人，就仿效班固、司馬遷；創(chuàng)立編年體裁的人，就模擬荀悅、袁宏。在這時(shí)候，史記、漢書(shū)創(chuàng)立的紀(jì)傳體廣泛流傳于社會(huì)，而國(guó)語(yǔ)創(chuàng)立的國(guó)別史風(fēng)氣就逐漸衰微不振了。史記流派的史書(shū)，它的起源產(chǎn)生于司馬遷。自以詩(shī)、書(shū)、禮、易、春秋流行衰微，諸子百家競(jìng)相陳列，事跡錯(cuò)雜，前后不一。到了司馬遷時(shí)，便收集本朝修纂的歷史，采訪平民之家，上起自于傳說(shuō)中的黃帝，下至漢武帝時(shí)期，本紀(jì)、列傳用來(lái)統(tǒng)領(lǐng)君臣，史書(shū)、史表用來(lái)接照類別編排記錄年代，加起來(lái)共一百三十卷，因襲魯國(guó)史書(shū)的舊有名稱，給它起名叫做史記。從此以后漢代史官所續(xù)寫(xiě)的紀(jì)傳體史書(shū)，都將史記作為名稱。等到東漢著作史書(shū)，仍然稱作東觀漢紀(jì)。到梁武帝的時(shí)候，又動(dòng)員他手下的眾位大臣，上起自于太初，下終于齊王室，撰成通史六百二十卷。這部通史從秦朝以上，都以史記作為藍(lán)本，而另外采集其它說(shuō)法來(lái)擴(kuò)大不同的見(jiàn)聞；到兩漢以來(lái)，就全部記錄當(dāng)時(shí)的本紀(jì)、列傳，以而使上下通暢，風(fēng)格相互一致；還有三國(guó)時(shí)期吳、蜀二國(guó)的君主，都列入世家；五胡（鮮卑、匈奴、羌、氐、羯）和拓拔氏，都列在夷狄列傳，大致上該書(shū)的體例都像史記一樣，其中有所不同的，只是沒(méi)有表格罷了。此后元魏濟(jì)陰王暉業(yè)又寫(xiě)成科錄二百七十卷?？其浀臄嘞抟财鹱杂谏瞎牛K于劉宋時(shí)期。該書(shū)的編次大多仿效通史的體例，而選取其中的舊事尤其相似的內(nèi)容編為一科，所以就用科錄作為它的名稱。本朝顯慶年間，符璽郎隴西人李延壽抄集近代各種史書(shū)，南方起

簡(jiǎn)介：動(dòng)態(tài)能力和戰(zhàn)略管理DAVIDJTEECE1,GARYPISANO2ANDAMYSHUEN3動(dòng)態(tài)能力結(jié)構(gòu)分析了技術(shù)快速變革環(huán)境中由個(gè)體經(jīng)營(yíng)的個(gè)體企業(yè)公司所獲取的可以贏利的資源和方法。人們認(rèn)為，公司的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)是在特定過(guò)程（協(xié)同和合并）基礎(chǔ)上建立的，并由公司特有的資產(chǎn)定位（例如公司中相對(duì)不易交換的知識(shí)資本及其他互補(bǔ)資產(chǎn)的結(jié)構(gòu)）和已采納或繼承的發(fā)展方式中形成的。路徑依賴的重要性在于詳述持續(xù)贏利能力條件的存在方式。一個(gè)企業(yè)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)能否以及何種程度上被削弱取決于市場(chǎng)需求的穩(wěn)定性以及其自身在內(nèi)部被傳播和被競(jìng)爭(zhēng)中模仿的難易程度。若假設(shè)成立，這個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)認(rèn)為在技術(shù)快速變革體質(zhì)下一個(gè)個(gè)體的贏利能力很大程度上取決于公司內(nèi)部技術(shù)發(fā)展、組織和管理的過(guò)程。簡(jiǎn)言之，識(shí)別新機(jī)會(huì)、有效組織以及兩者的高效結(jié)合在通常情況下比戰(zhàn)略更加重要。戰(zhàn)略意味著開(kāi)發(fā)新的商業(yè)產(chǎn)品服務(wù)以打破競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的平衡、提高競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的成本、驅(qū)逐新進(jìn)入者。1997BYJOHNWILEY＆SOSNSLTD引言在戰(zhàn)略管理領(lǐng)域中，最基本的問(wèn)題是企業(yè)如何獲得并保持競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)。我們?cè)诖擞脛?dòng)態(tài)能力（既企業(yè)得以贏利的資源）觀點(diǎn)來(lái)探討這個(gè)問(wèn)題。對(duì)這個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)的發(fā)展源于作者的一個(gè)發(fā)現(xiàn)，即戰(zhàn)略原理在分析公司層次上分析如何保持和防護(hù)現(xiàn)存競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)上非常圓滿，但在對(duì)幫助理解一個(gè)公司為何以及怎樣在快速變化的體制中建立競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)上稍顯遜色。我們的方法是與基于創(chuàng)新的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)、價(jià)格質(zhì)量對(duì)抗、持續(xù)盈利、“富有創(chuàng)造性摧毀”現(xiàn)存競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的社會(huì)中緊密相關(guān)的。這個(gè)觀點(diǎn)試圖解釋在公司層次上的失敗。我們對(duì)為公司表現(xiàn)建立一個(gè)更好的理論以及告知經(jīng)理實(shí)踐兩者都有興趣。為使我們的分析在一定程度上和現(xiàn)存方法展現(xiàn)出異同點(diǎn)，我們從簡(jiǎn)短回顧以往的戰(zhàn)略管理中所采取的結(jié)構(gòu)開(kāi)始。我們?cè)噲D挖掘出其中暗含的假設(shè)，并且識(shí)別現(xiàn)在的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)狀況（作為對(duì)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)戰(zhàn)略即是一種有用描述工具優(yōu)勢(shì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)理論的每個(gè)典范觀點(diǎn)都會(huì)展現(xiàn)出一些比較優(yōu)勢(shì)）。在1980年主流的觀點(diǎn)是由波特1980發(fā)展的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力量模型。這個(gè)方法根源于行業(yè)組織的結(jié)構(gòu)行為績(jī)效模型范式（梅森1949、貝恩1959）。強(qiáng)調(diào)一個(gè)企業(yè)可采取的建立防御位置以應(yīng)對(duì)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力量的行為。第二種方法，被稱為戰(zhàn)略沖突方法，與第一種方法是相關(guān)的，因?yàn)樗鼈兊闹攸c(diǎn)在于產(chǎn)品市場(chǎng)瑕疵，進(jìn)入障礙和戰(zhàn)略相互作用。戰(zhàn)略性沖突方法運(yùn)用了博弈論的方法，并把競(jìng)爭(zhēng)結(jié)構(gòu)視為企業(yè)通過(guò)戰(zhàn)略投資、定價(jià)策略、信號(hào)、信息控制擊敗對(duì)手的有效作用。競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力量與戰(zhàn)略沖突方法都認(rèn)為租金來(lái)源于先行產(chǎn)品市場(chǎng)的定位。另一種獨(dú)特的方法著重通過(guò)獲取企業(yè)租金來(lái)建立競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)，企業(yè)租金是從公司層次的效率優(yōu)勢(shì)中產(chǎn)生的。這些方法來(lái)源于一個(gè)很早的關(guān)于公司優(yōu)勢(shì)劣勢(shì)的討論，他們從現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中獲取的證據(jù)表明公司只有通過(guò)效率效力的提高以及將組織經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的發(fā)展和技術(shù)與組織的變革應(yīng)用于戰(zhàn)略問(wèn)題中才能建立持久的優(yōu)勢(shì)。這種方法的另一個(gè)分支（即常被稱為是基于資源的觀點(diǎn)）強(qiáng)調(diào)企業(yè)特有的能力和資產(chǎn)以及現(xiàn)有的隔離機(jī)制是企業(yè)績(jī)效的重要決定因素。這一觀點(diǎn)承認(rèn)但并不試圖解釋是企業(yè)家的租金、競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)得以維持的隔離機(jī)制。另一種基于效率觀點(diǎn)的方法內(nèi)容在本文中也有闡明。我們做了初步的努力老確定可成為企業(yè)優(yōu)勢(shì)來(lái)源的企業(yè)特定能力大小，并解釋能力和資源的組合是如何開(kāi)發(fā)、部署、保護(hù)的。我們把這個(gè)稱為動(dòng)態(tài)能力方法來(lái)說(shuō)明利用企業(yè)現(xiàn)有的內(nèi)外部能力來(lái)應(yīng)對(duì)不斷變化的環(huán)境，這個(gè)方法的有關(guān)內(nèi)容在在熊彼特（1942），彭羅斯（1959），納爾遜和溫特（1982），普拉哈拉德和哈默（1990），蒂斯（1976,1986A，1986B，1988）和海斯，威爾懷特，和克拉克（1988）的觀點(diǎn)中均有體現(xiàn)。因?yàn)檫@些領(lǐng)域往往被視為超過(guò)了傳統(tǒng)戰(zhàn)略理論的界限，這個(gè)研究的大致內(nèi)容還沒(méi)被納入到現(xiàn)存的解決戰(zhàn)略問(wèn)題的經(jīng)濟(jì)型方法中。因此動(dòng)態(tài)能力可以被看成是理解競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)來(lái)源的一個(gè)新興的、潛在的綜合角度。我們認(rèn)為動(dòng)態(tài)能力在未來(lái)研究趨勢(shì)和作為企業(yè)在持續(xù)需要的環(huán)境中作為一個(gè)對(duì)管理的幫助。為了說(shuō)動(dòng)。因而結(jié)果的定性特征或取決于所采取的價(jià)格競(jìng)爭(zhēng)方式（貝特朗卡諾歐特）或取決于不對(duì)稱戰(zhàn)略的存在與否（例如先發(fā)優(yōu)勢(shì)）。利用博弈論進(jìn)行戰(zhàn)略行為分析在某種意義上可被認(rèn)為是動(dòng)態(tài)的，即多期分析即可以直觀獲得也可以正式分析。然而，我們?cè)谖闹兴傅摹皠?dòng)態(tài)”具有不同的含義，即指一種特定情形。這個(gè)情形中技術(shù)和市場(chǎng)力量迅速變化，并對(duì)公司有反饋效應(yīng)。戰(zhàn)略沖突的研究是和戰(zhàn)略管理有關(guān)的，我們對(duì)此有特定的觀點(diǎn)。具有巨大成本或與對(duì)手相比擁有其他競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)的公司不會(huì)對(duì)他們對(duì)手的行為、對(duì)策視而不見(jiàn)。他們的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)命運(yùn)更多的依賴總體需求條件，而不是競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手如何部署以及重新部署自己的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)資產(chǎn)。換句話說(shuō)，當(dāng)企業(yè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)之間嚴(yán)重失衡時(shí)，用博弈論分析得到的結(jié)果是顯而易見(jiàn)并且無(wú)趣的。更強(qiáng)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手會(huì)提前采取行動(dòng)，即使他們?cè)谀承┬畔⒉粚?duì)稱中處于劣勢(shì)地位?？梢钥隙ǖ氖牵谖黄髽I(yè)的優(yōu)勢(shì)可被一個(gè)具有顯著成本優(yōu)勢(shì)的新進(jìn)入者打消，但不參與游戲會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)變這一結(jié)果。另一方面，如果企業(yè)間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)地位是更加微妙的平衡狀態(tài)，與可口可樂(lè)和百事可樂(lè)，和美國(guó)聯(lián)合航空公司和美國(guó)航空公司，戰(zhàn)略利益沖突的結(jié)果很可能是競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。不用說(shuō)，有很多這樣的情況，但是在工業(yè)技術(shù)迅速變化、市場(chǎng)情形快速轉(zhuǎn)變的行業(yè)中是很罕見(jiàn)的。簡(jiǎn)而言之，在競(jìng)爭(zhēng)中沒(méi)有長(zhǎng)期競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)時(shí)，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的動(dòng)向和對(duì)策可以在博弈論方面有效的制定。然而，我們懷疑博弈論如何全面闡明克萊斯勒如何同豐田和本田相競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的，以及當(dāng)西南航空公司的優(yōu)勢(shì)是在聯(lián)合航空公司無(wú)法輕易復(fù)雜的情況下建立起來(lái)時(shí)，聯(lián)合航空公司如何更好的回應(yīng)對(duì)方。實(shí)際上，創(chuàng)業(yè)邊的戰(zhàn)略（新租金流是如何創(chuàng)建和保護(hù)的），被博弈論在很大程度上忽略了。因此我們發(fā)現(xiàn)，這種重要的方法在很容易確定相關(guān)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)者人數(shù)和易識(shí)別的戰(zhàn)略選擇情況下最相關(guān)。然而，當(dāng)我們考慮到戰(zhàn)略的潛在形成時(shí)，這個(gè)研究方法為我們提供了方向。租金，從博弈論的角度來(lái)看，都是一個(gè)經(jīng)理人“玩游戲”的最終智力能力的結(jié)果。在這種方法中，戰(zhàn)略家的格言是“在競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手采取行動(dòng)前占據(jù)有利先機(jī)”。我們擔(dān)心過(guò)度沉溺于戰(zhàn)略行為和權(quán)謀魅力會(huì)分散經(jīng)理人建立更多持久資源來(lái)獲取競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)的精力。不幸的是，這種方法忽略了包含在開(kāi)發(fā)、積累、組合、保護(hù)獨(dú)特能力的過(guò)程中的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。由于戰(zhàn)略的相互作用是從焦點(diǎn)關(guān)注中得到的，人們從研究中得到的觀點(diǎn)是市場(chǎng)占有率中的復(fù)雜戲劇性和技術(shù)的結(jié)果，這是與通常的情況相違背的。接下來(lái)，我們建議對(duì)商業(yè)企業(yè)建立一個(gè)動(dòng)態(tài)的觀點(diǎn)（我們目前所列舉的兩種方法中部包括的內(nèi)容），增強(qiáng)建立可接受的描述性戰(zhàn)略可以協(xié)助參與者建立長(zhǎng)期競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)和競(jìng)爭(zhēng)靈活性的戰(zhàn)略理論的可能性。下面，我們首先討論基于資源的觀點(diǎn)，以及我們稱之為動(dòng)態(tài)能力方法的延伸。（三）強(qiáng)調(diào)效率的戰(zhàn)略模型資源觀基于資源的方法認(rèn)為具有優(yōu)越制度和結(jié)構(gòu)的公司之所以贏利不是因?yàn)樗麄冏柚惯M(jìn)入和提高長(zhǎng)期經(jīng)營(yíng)成本的價(jià)格的投資，而是因?yàn)樗麄冇兄@著的低成本或提供更高質(zhì)量的更好性能產(chǎn)品的優(yōu)勢(shì)。這種方法重點(diǎn)關(guān)注企業(yè)特定稀缺資源擁有者累積的租金，而不是產(chǎn)品市場(chǎng)定位中獲得的經(jīng)濟(jì)利潤(rùn)。競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)在于上游產(chǎn)品市場(chǎng)，并且依賴于企業(yè)獨(dú)特的風(fēng)格和難以模仿的資源。早期的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)戰(zhàn)略研究認(rèn)為，一個(gè)組織的能力在于它的表現(xiàn)以及應(yīng)對(duì)環(huán)境和競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)策的潛在能力，不管組織是做什么的。每個(gè)組織都有實(shí)際存在和潛在的優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)，重要的是把它們找出來(lái)并相互區(qū)分開(kāi)。所以一個(gè)公司可以做的不僅是把握面對(duì)的機(jī)遇，還取決于能掌握的資源。據(jù)悉，一個(gè)公司的成功、甚至其未來(lái)發(fā)展的真正關(guān)鍵在于它有能力發(fā)現(xiàn)或創(chuàng)造出真正與眾不同的能力。這個(gè)研究你也承認(rèn)了對(duì)企業(yè)行為的約束，并特別提出人們不能假定管理能達(dá)到任何效果。這些見(jiàn)解似乎的確敏銳的預(yù)見(jiàn)到以資源為基礎(chǔ)的方法形成，但是他們沒(méi)對(duì)分析商業(yè)戰(zhàn)略提出了一個(gè)理論或者系統(tǒng)的框架。實(shí)際上，安德魯斯（198746）指出，這個(gè)過(guò)程中看似直觀的東西是待證明的。不幸的是，關(guān)于能力的學(xué)術(shù)文獻(xiàn)停滯了幾十年的時(shí)間。由于最近在組織行為學(xué)和戰(zhàn)略中理論有了新發(fā)展，以及基于資源的觀點(diǎn)被賦予了新的動(dòng)力。不斷發(fā)展的傳聞和經(jīng)驗(yàn)式的研究在解釋企業(yè)行為時(shí)強(qiáng)調(diào)了公司特定因素的重要性。COOL和施恩特1983指出美國(guó)制藥業(yè)中屬于同一戰(zhàn)略群體的企業(yè)間存在系統(tǒng)的顯著的表現(xiàn)（業(yè)績(jī)）差異。RUMELT（1991）已指出同行業(yè)內(nèi)的贏利水平差異性比行業(yè)間贏利水平差異性大，顯著表明企業(yè)特殊因素是重要的，而行業(yè)效應(yīng)是

簡(jiǎn)介：汽車離合器中英文對(duì)照外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)汽車離合器中英文對(duì)照外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)汽車離合器中英文對(duì)照外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)文檔含英文原文和中文翻譯FETHERMALANALYSISOFACERAMICCLUTCH1INTRODUCTIONABRASIVEDRYRUNNINGVEHICLECLUTCHESAREFORCECLOSURECOUPLINGSTORQUEANDSPEEDTRANSMISSIONAREENSUREDBYTHEFRICTIONALFORCEGENERATEDBETWEENTWOPRESSEDSURFACESREASONSFORTHEAPPLICATIONOFCERAMICASAFRICTIONMEDIUMINCLUDEGOODHEATANDWEARRESISTANCEPROPERTIES,WHICHPROVIDETHEOPPORTUNITYTODRIVEHIGHERPRESSURES,ANDALOWDENSITYTHUS,ANINCREASINGPOWERDENSITYISENABLEDWITHAPARALLELMINIMIZATIONOFCONSTRUCTIONSPACEMEASUREMENTSWITHAFIRSTPROTOTYPEOFACLUTCHDISKUSINGCERAMICFACINGSWEREPERFORMEDATKARLSRUHEUNIVERSITYINALABORATORYSPECIALIZEDINPASSENGERCARDRIVESYSTEMTESTINGINTHECOURSEOFANALYSISTHEFINITEELEMENTFEMODELWASTOBECONSTRUCTEDWITHTHEKNOWLEDGEOFMEASUREMENTDATAANDMEASUREMENTCONDITIONSCALCULATIONSWERECORRECTADJUSTMENTOFTIMESTEPSDUETOTHESUBSTANTIALHARDWAREREQUIREMENTSFORTRANSIENTCALCULATIONSCHANGESINTHERMALPARAMETERSSUCHASTHESURFACEHEATCONVECTIONCOEFFICIENTANDTHERMALLOADHADTOBETAKENINTOCONSIDERATIONONANONGOINGBASISINTERMSOFTIMEANDLOCATIONTHETWOSIDESOFTHEANALYZEDTESTCLUTCHSYSTEMCANONLYBEMANAGEDBYTWOINDEPENDENTMODELSLINKEDBYHEATPARTITION,ACCORDINGTOTHEHYPOTHESISTHATTHECONTACTTEMPERATUREMUSTBEIDENTICALONBOTHSIDESWHILETHEREISPROPERCONTACTBETWEENTHEMANDITSVALUEMUSTBEADJUSTEDBYITERATIONCALCULATIONSREVEALEDTHATTHEHEATPARTITIONCHANGEDBYCYCLEANDITDIFFEREDALONGTHEINNERANDOUTERCONTACTRINGSASARESULTOFTHEDIFFERENTCOOLINGCHARACTERISTICSBETWEENTHECERAMICANDSTEELSIDE,AHEATOWISLAUNCHEDFROMTHECERAMICSIDETOTHESTEELSIDETHISHEATFLOWWASALSODETERMINEDBYITERATION,ITSVALUEALSOCHANGESBYCYCLEANDDIFFERSALONGTHEINNERANDOUTERCONTACTRINGS2FIRSTPROTOTYPEOFACLUTCHUSINGENGINEERINGCERAMICSASFRICTIONMATERIAL

簡(jiǎn)介：UNIT4TEXTAUNIT4TEXTA傳統(tǒng)中醫(yī)和現(xiàn)代西醫(yī)的融通傳統(tǒng)中醫(yī)和現(xiàn)代西醫(yī)的融通等美國(guó)社會(huì)各界的關(guān)注。越來(lái)越多的保險(xiǎn)公司和管理式醫(yī)療機(jī)構(gòu)為傳統(tǒng)醫(yī)學(xué)大開(kāi)方便之門，現(xiàn)在大多數(shù)美國(guó)醫(yī)學(xué)院也開(kāi)設(shè)了傳統(tǒng)醫(yī)學(xué)課程。艾森伯格的多項(xiàng)全國(guó)性研究表明也有更多人在使用補(bǔ)充療法。為了便于研究替代療法的有效性，美國(guó)國(guó)家補(bǔ)充與替代醫(yī)學(xué)中心于1999年獲得了多達(dá)五千萬(wàn)美元的預(yù)算。由于認(rèn)識(shí)到除了要對(duì)飲食補(bǔ)充劑安全性和有效性進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)性評(píng)估之外，還需要提升植物藥材科學(xué)數(shù)據(jù)的質(zhì)量和數(shù)量，今年為此設(shè)立了兩個(gè)研究中心，以研究植物藥材的生物學(xué)作用。許多患者傳統(tǒng)模式和現(xiàn)代模式同時(shí)并用，這就需要將兩種醫(yī)學(xué)進(jìn)行合理平穩(wěn)地結(jié)合。傳統(tǒng)中醫(yī)的理論和技術(shù)涵蓋了美國(guó)歸為補(bǔ)充醫(yī)學(xué)的多數(shù)實(shí)踐，在醫(yī)療保健體系中變得日益重要。若運(yùn)用得當(dāng)，傳統(tǒng)中醫(yī)費(fèi)用合理，技術(shù)含量低，安全且有效。在全球，正在展開(kāi)針對(duì)針灸、草藥、按摩和太極的諸多研究，這可闡釋傳統(tǒng)中醫(yī)的一些理論和實(shí)踐。雄心勃勃的研究設(shè)計(jì)提供的證據(jù)和巨大的患者需求正在推動(dòng)傳統(tǒng)中醫(yī)和現(xiàn)代醫(yī)學(xué)在臨床層面的結(jié)合，而學(xué)術(shù)研究者和學(xué)術(shù)機(jī)構(gòu)對(duì)兩種治療體系結(jié)合的潛力也有越來(lái)越濃厚的興趣。人們對(duì)傳統(tǒng)醫(yī)學(xué)和補(bǔ)充醫(yī)學(xué)的興趣正在引起醫(yī)療界、政府部門、媒體和公眾針刺針刺專家共識(shí)發(fā)展小組保守建議針刺可以作為多種疾患的輔助療法、替代療法或綜合管理方案的一部分。該專家組確認(rèn)針刺可用于治療手術(shù)后出現(xiàn)的和化療引起的惡心和嘔吐，也可治療術(shù)后牙痛。專家組同時(shí)也建議針灸可作為輔助療法或可接受的替代療法，用以治療成癮、卒中康復(fù)、頭痛、經(jīng)痛、網(wǎng)球肘、纖維肌痛、肌筋膜疼痛、骨關(guān)節(jié)炎、下背痛、腕管綜合癥和哮喘等。未來(lái)在傳統(tǒng)中醫(yī)架構(gòu)下進(jìn)行的針刺臨床試驗(yàn)與當(dāng)前這一代主要主要從生物醫(yī)學(xué)的角度對(duì)針刺療效進(jìn)行評(píng)判的臨床試驗(yàn)相比，可能對(duì)針刺的療效提供更恰當(dāng)更有臨床意義的評(píng)估。臨床研究中現(xiàn)有的科學(xué)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)性必須保持。然而，NIH數(shù)據(jù)基于1997年美國(guó)國(guó)立衛(wèi)生研究院（NIH）專家共識(shí)會(huì)議審查的證據(jù)，NIH而更接近于手術(shù)和理療。因此，針刺的療效評(píng)估應(yīng)類似于上述治療干預(yù)方法。目前，人們正在通過(guò)進(jìn)行嚴(yán)格研究設(shè)計(jì)取得證據(jù)，與此同時(shí)，在確立臨床實(shí)踐建議時(shí)也應(yīng)該考慮進(jìn)行大型病例系列分析得來(lái)的證據(jù)。為了闡明針刺機(jī)理并研究針刺在各種情況中的作用，人們開(kāi)始運(yùn)用功能性核磁共振造影（FMRI）、正電子發(fā)射斷層攝影（PET）、單光子發(fā)射計(jì)算機(jī)斷層攝影（SPECT）和腦磁波描記（MEG）等新興技術(shù)。人們正在研究針刺的神經(jīng)解剖/神經(jīng)生理基礎(chǔ)、生物電特性、止痛作用和對(duì)胃腸、免疫、心血管功能等領(lǐng)域的調(diào)節(jié)作用。美國(guó)和世界其他地方的研究更深入，投入更大，規(guī)模更大，有望發(fā)現(xiàn)針刺有效的其他領(lǐng)域。這將進(jìn)一步推動(dòng)針刺作為通用的治療方法被人接受，不僅用于治療，也用于預(yù)防疾病和促進(jìn)健康。隨著技術(shù)的進(jìn)步，人們將繼續(xù)探究并完善刺激穴位的新方法。針刺的基礎(chǔ)研究也有助于促進(jìn)人們對(duì)神經(jīng)科學(xué)和人類生理、機(jī)能等領(lǐng)域的理解。由于患者需求提高，也由于研究和臨床經(jīng)驗(yàn)深化了人們對(duì)針刺在醫(yī)療保健中作用的理解，生物醫(yī)學(xué)界、醫(yī)療保險(xiǎn)業(yè)、醫(yī)生和其他醫(yī)療提供者開(kāi)始對(duì)針刺治療感興趣。遲早，排斥針刺治療者將處于不利地位。針刺的治療作用和降低成本的可能性得到更廣泛的認(rèn)可，這會(huì)進(jìn)一步推動(dòng)更多的保險(xiǎn)公司、醫(yī)療集團(tuán)、甚至聯(lián)邦醫(yī)療保險(xiǎn)擴(kuò)大針刺治療的償付范圍。我們將目睹針刺治療越來(lái)越多地用于門診部門、醫(yī)院、康復(fù)機(jī)構(gòu)和臨終關(guān)懷醫(yī)院。在各種臨床機(jī)構(gòu)里越來(lái)越多的有行醫(yī)執(zhí)照和無(wú)行醫(yī)執(zhí)照的針刺師從事針刺治療。在有些專業(yè)領(lǐng)域，一些執(zhí)業(yè)針刺專家和醫(yī)學(xué)博士一起共事。在新千年，引導(dǎo)針刺治療發(fā)展的不僅是傳統(tǒng)中醫(yī)理念，而且是來(lái)自多領(lǐng)域研究所形成的數(shù)據(jù)，包括神經(jīng)科學(xué)、分子生物學(xué)、時(shí)間生物學(xué)、計(jì)算機(jī)和信息科學(xué)、能量學(xué)、綜合生理學(xué)和臨床試驗(yàn)創(chuàng)新方法。草藥草藥自古以來(lái)，人類和動(dòng)物一直嘗試并運(yùn)用植物藥材緩解病癥。服用中草藥前，需要對(duì)病人正確辯“證”（病理生理型態(tài)），選擇相應(yīng)的治療策略和原則以指導(dǎo)草

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