外文翻譯---施工質量控制、安全和成本控制

1、<p>　　工程管理專業(yè)畢業(yè)外文翻譯（房地產）</p><p>　　Quality Control 、Safety During Construction and Cost Control</p><p>　　Quality and Safety Concerns in Construction</p><p>　　Quality control and

2、safety represent increasingly important concerns for project managers. Defects or failures in constructed facilities can result in very large costs. Even with minor defects, re-construction may be required and facility o

3、perations impaired. Increased costs and delays are the result. In the worse case, failures may cause personal injuries or fatalities. Accidents during the construction process can similarly result in personal injuries an

4、d large costs. Indirect costs of insuran</p><p>　　As with cost control, the most important decisions regarding the quality of a completed facility are made during the design and planning stages rather than d

5、uring construction. It is during these preliminary stages that component configurations, material specifications and functional performance are decided. Quality control during construction consists largely of insuring co

6、nformance to these original design and planning decisions.</p><p>　　While conformance to existing design decisions is the primary focus of quality control, these are exceptions to this rule. First, unforesee

7、n circumstances, incorrect design decisions or changes desired by an owner in the facility function may require re-evaluation of design decisions during the course of construction. While these changes may be motivated by

8、 the concern for quality, they represent occasions for re-design with all the attendant objectives and constraints. As a second case, some de</p><p>　　With the attention to conformance as the measure of qual

9、ity during the construction process, the specification of quality requirements in the design and contract documentation becomes extremely important. Quality requirements should be clear and verifiable, so that all partie

10、s in the project can understand the requirements for conformance.</p><p>　　Safety during the construction project is also influenced in large part by decisions made during the planning and design process. So

11、me designs or construction plans are inherently difficult and dangerous to implement, whereas other, comparable plans may considerably reduce the possibility of accidents. For example, clear separation of traffic from co

12、nstruction zones during roadway rehabilitation can greatly reduce the possibility of accidental collisions. Beyond these design decisions, safety la</p><p>　　Total Quality Control </p><p>　　Qual

13、ity control in construction typically involves insuring compliance with minimum standards of material and workmanship in order to insure the performance of the facility according to the design. These minimum standards ar

14、e contained in the specifications. For the purpose of insuring compliance, random samples and statistical methods are commonly used as the basis for accepting or rejecting work completed and batches of materials. Rejecti

15、on of a batch is based on non-conformance or violation o</p><p>　　An implicit assumption in these traditional quality control practices is the notion of an acceptable quality level which is a allowable fract

16、ion of defective items. Materials obtained from suppliers or work performed by an organization is inspected and passed as acceptable if the estimated defective percentage is within the acceptable quality level. Problems

17、with materials or goods are corrected after delivery of the product.</p><p>　　In contrast to this traditional approach of quality control is the goal of total quality control. In this system, no defective it

18、ems are allowed anywhere in the construction process. While the zero defects goal can never be permanently obtained, it provides a goal so that an organization is never satisfied with its quality control program even if

19、defects are reduced by substantial amounts year after year. This concept and approach to quality control was first developed in manufacturing firms in </p><p>　　Total quality control is a commitment to quali

20、ty expressed in all parts of an organization and typically involves many elements. Design reviews to insure safe and effective construction procedures are a major element. Other elements include extensive training for pe

21、rsonnel, shifting the responsibility for detecting defects from quality control inspectors to workers, and continually maintaining equipment. Workers involvement in improved quality control is often formalized in quality

22、 circles in wh</p><p>　　The traditional microeconomic view of quality control is that there is an “optimum” proportion of defective items. Trying to achieve greater quality than this optimum would substantia

23、lly increase costs of inspection and reduce worker productivity. However, many companies have found that commitment to total quality control has substantial economic benefits that had been unappreciated in traditional ap

24、proaches. Expenses associated with inventory, rework, scrap and warranties were reduced. Worker e</p><p>　　Of course, total quality control is difficult to apply, particular in construction. The unique natur

25、e of each facility, the variability in the workforce, the multitude of subcontractors and the cost of marking necessary investments in education and procedures make programs of total quality control in construction diffi

26、cult. Nevertheless, a commitment to improved quality even without endorsing the goal of zero defects can pay real dividends to organizations.</p><p><b>　　Safety </b></p><p>　　Constru

27、ction is a relatively hazardous undertaking. These are significantly more injuries and lost workdays due to injuries or illnesses in construction than in virtually any other industry. These work related injuries and illn

28、esses are exceedingly costly. The Construction Industry Cost Effectiveness Project estimated that accidents cost $8.9 billion or nearly seven percent of the $ 137 billion (in 1979 dollars) spent annually for industrial,

29、utility and commercial construction in the United Sta</p><p>　　As with all the other costs of construction, it is a mistake for owners to ignore a significant category of costs such as injury and illness. Wh

30、ile contractors may pay insurance premiums directly, these costs are reflected in bid prices or contract amounts. Delays caused by injuries and illnesses can present significant opportunity costs to owners. In the long r

31、un, the owners of constructed facilities must pay all the costs of construction. For the case of injuries and illnesses, this general pr</p><p>　　Various measures are available to improve jobsite safety in c

32、onstruction. Several of the most important occur before construction is undertaken. These include design, choice of technology and education. By altering facility designs, particular structures can be safer or more hazar

33、dous to construct. For example, parapets can be designed to appropriate heights for construction worker safety, rather than the minimum height required by building codes.</p><p>　　Choice of technology can al

34、so be critical in determining the safety of a jobsite. Safeguards built into machinery can notify operators of problems or prevent injuries. For example, simple switches can prevent equipment from being operating when pr

35、otective shields are not in place. With the availability of on-board electronics (including computer chips) and sensors, the possibilities for sophisticated machine controllers and monitors has greatly expanded for const

36、ruction equipment and tools. Mate</p><p>　　Educating workers and managers in proper procedures and hazards can have a direct impact on jobsite safety. The realization of the large costs involved in construct

37、ion injuries and illnesses provides a considerable motivation for awareness and education. Regular safety inspections and safety meetings have become standard practices on most job sites.</p><p>　　Pre-qualif

38、ication of contractors and sub-contractors with regard to safety is another important avenue for safety improvement. If contractors are only invited to bid or enter negotiations if they have an acceptable record of safet

39、y (as well as quality performance), then a direct incentive is provided to insure adequate safety on the part of contractors.</p><p>　　During the construction process itself, the most important safety relate

40、d measures are to insure vigilance and cooperation on the part of managers, inspectors and workers. Vigilance involves considering the risks of different working practices. In also involves maintaining temporary physical

41、 safeguards such as barricaders, braces, guiltiness, railings, toe boards and the like. Sets of standard practices are also important, such as:</p><p>　　? requiring hard hats on site.</p><p>　　?

42、 requiring eye protection on site.</p><p>　　? requiring hearing protection near loud equipment.</p><p>　　? insuring safety shoes for workers.</p><p>　　? providing first-aid supplies

43、 and trained personnel on site.</p><p>　　While eliminating accidents and work related illnesses is a worthwhile goal, it will never be attained. Construction has a number of characteristics making it inheren

44、tly hazardous. Large forces are involved in many operations. The jobsite is continually changing as construction proceeds. Workers do not have fixed worksites and must move around a structure under construction. The tenu

45、re of a worker on a site is short, so the worker’s familiarity and the employer-employees relationship are less se</p><p>　　A cost control procedure for construction works</p><p>　　Introduction

46、</p><p>　　The construction industry, unlike many manufacturing situations, is concerned mostly with one-off projects. This naturally creates difficulties for effective management control, because each new co

47、ntract is often characterized by the following features:</p><p>　　? A fresh management team</p><p>　　? Labor is transient and recruited on an ad hoc basis</p><p>　　?Sites are disper

48、sed through the county, which tends to cause problems in effective communications with other parts of the company</p><p>　　? Subcontractors and ‘lump’ labor are common</p><p>　　? Added to all th

49、is are the ever-changing weather conditions</p><p>　　Nevertheless, irrespective of the scale of operation from small sub-contractor to the multifaceted project, production costs need to be monitored and cont

50、rolled if the anticipated level of profit is to be received. </p><p>　　Fundamentals</p><p>　　To control costs is an obvious objective of most managers, but it should be reconciled that no amoun

51、t of paperwork achieves this control. Ultimately the decision of the manager that something should be done differently, and the translation of that decision into practice, are the actions that achieve control. The paperw

52、ork can provide guidance on what control actions should be taken and, while we shall continue to call it ‘the cost control system’. It should more properly be called ‘the cost info</p><p>　　The elements of a

53、ny control system are:</p><p>　　? Observation </p><p>　　? Comparison of observation with some desired standard</p><p>　　? Corrective action to take if necessary</p><p>

54、　　The domestic thermostat is a good example of a controller. This instrument measures temperature, compares it with the desired range, and then switches the temperature heating system ‘on’ or ‘off’ depending on how the c

55、urrent temperature compares with the desired range.</p><p>　　A cost control system should enable a manager to observe current cost levels, compare them with a standard plan or norm, and institute corrective

56、action to keep cost within acceptable bounds. The system should help to identify where corrective action is necessary and provide pointers as to what that action should be.</p><p>　　Unlike the humble thermos

57、tat, most cost control systems have an inordinately long response time. Even the best current system provides information on what was happening last week or last month. As the work is typically part of a one-off project

58、it is quite likely that the information is only partly relevant to the work going on now. So the scope for corrective action is limited. For example, the system might indicate on 1 May that the from-work operation in Mar

59、ch cost too much. If from-work oper</p><p>　　In the conventional systems described below two fundamental points are important. First, all costs must be allocated, even if this is on a very ‘coarse grained’ c

60、oding arrangement. If only the major items are monitored you can be sure that the wasted time will be booked against the items which are not being monitored. Thus the manager will be deluded by the reports on the ‘import

61、ant items’ into thinking the whole site is satisfactory; in fact it might be incurring disastrous hidden losses. Secon</p><p>　　Systems in Current Use</p><p>　　The following systems and variants

62、 of them are in use in the construction industry. The selection of a system depends in part on the size and complexity of the contract, but more on the attitude and level of sophistication of top management.</p>&

63、lt;p>　　By overall profit or loss</p><p>　　The contractor waits until the contract is complete and then compares the sums of money that have been paid with the monies incurred in purchasing materials, paym

64、ents for labor, subcontractors, plant and overheads. The figures are normally extracted from the financial accounts compulsorily kept by all companies. Such a system is useful only on minor contracts of short duration in

65、volving a small workforce and little construction equipment. It sacredly qualified as a control system as the informat</p><p>　　Profit or loss on each contract at valuation dates</p><p>　　The to

66、tal costs to date are compared with valuations gross of retentions. Care has to be taken to include the cost of materials delivered but not yet invoiced and to exclude materials on site not yet built into the permanent w

67、ork. If the certificate is not a time reflection of the value of work done, a further adjustment is necessary. This system suffers from the disadvantage that there is no breakdown of the profit figure between types of wo

68、rk; it therefore provides guidance only which contract</p><p>　　Unit costing</p><p>　　In this system costs of various tapes of work, such as mixing and placing concrete, are recorded separately.

69、 The costs, both cumulatively and on a period basis, are divided by the quantity of work of each type that has been done. This provides unit costs, which can be compared with those in the tender. Considerable care must b

70、e taken to ensure that all costs are accounted for, as indicated above under ‘Fundamentals’. Any miscellaneous costs must be recorded and allowed for in some way, e.g. by p</p><p>　　Systems based on the prin

71、ciples of standard costing</p><p>　　Standard costing has been used successfully in manufacturing industries, particularly in companies producing a limited range of products or at least a limited range of bas

72、ic components. Standard minute values are associated with the production of each component and assembly and converted to money values by reference to the hourly rates of the appropriate grades of operatives. Variances ar

73、e calculated, basically by comparing the value of the output with the cost of producing it. A variance is the</p><p>　　? Material price</p><p>　　? Material usage</p><p>　　? Labor ra

74、te</p><p>　　? Labor efficiency</p><p>　　? Fixed and variable overhead expenditure</p><p>　　? Volume of production</p><p><b>　　? Sales</b></p><p&g

75、t;　　Standard costing is seldom directly applicable in construction owing to the variety of the product. This makes the use of standard minute values difficult if not impossible. However, as an alternative, the value of w

76、ork done can be assessed in relation to the contract budget, which, in turn must reflect the amount that the contractor can expect to be paid.</p><p>　　One of the important features is the calculation of a s

77、ales variance. This encourages the company to define sales (marketing, public relations, negotiations, estimating and bid strategy) as the responsibility of one department. An adverse variance indicates immediately that

78、the level of acquiring new contracts is inadequate.</p><p>　　Altogether, quite substantial departures from the manufacturing system are necessary and this accounts for the fact that standard costing is not i

79、n common use in construction. However, the system is basically very sound and provides comprehensive control of the company from boardroom down to workforce.</p><p><b>　　PERT/cost</b></p>

80、<p>　　This system requires each contract to be networked with PERT (performance evaluation and review technique). The values of work packages, which in essence are groups of activities, are assessed in advance. The

81、time update of the network provides the value of work done as a ‘by-product’ of the calculation. The value can be divided by cost code, provided that the work package information is similarly divided. Thus, when incurred

82、 costs are recorded against the same codes, variances can be calculated</p><p>　　施工質量控制、安全和成本控制</p><p>　　施工中的質量和安全問題</p><p>　　對項目經理來說，質量控制和安全越來越成為受關注的重要問題。對擬建設施中出現(xiàn)的缺陷或疏忽，可能要付出高昂的代價。

83、即使是小缺陷，也可能因重新施工或修復受損設施而導致成本增加和時間延誤。在極壞情況下。工作疏忽可能造成人員傷亡或死亡。施工過程中遇到突發(fā)事故同樣會造成人員傷亡和重大經濟損失。由于直接成本的不斷增加，保險、檢查、管理等間接成本也會迅速增加。優(yōu)秀的項目經理應盡力保證工程質量優(yōu)良并如期完成，以及項目上沒有重大事故發(fā)生。</p><p>　　如同成本控制那樣，有關整個設施質量的重要決策是在設計和計劃階段，而不是在施工階段作

84、出的。至于建筑構件結構、材料規(guī)格、功能性能更是在準備階段就決定的。施工期間的質量控制主要是保證工程與原設計和計劃決策的一致性。</p><p>　　盡管與原設計決策保持一致是質量控制的重點，但在執(zhí)行中對此規(guī)則也可能有例外。首先，在施工過程中，由于未預見到的環(huán)境變化，發(fā)現(xiàn)原設計決定的錯誤以及業(yè)主對工程設計功能提出的修改，都可能要求重新評估設計決定。雖然這些改變都出于一種對工程質量的關注，但它們構成了與所有相應目標和

85、制約因素一起進行重新設計的理由。其次，某些設計本身就取決于施工過程本身提供的成熟的并且適用于特定問題的決策。例如，對一些開挖隧道方法做決策時，是要根據(jù)開挖隧道過程中調查到的土壤情況來確定不同地點所需支撐的數(shù)量。因為這些決策建立在取得現(xiàn)場實際土壤條件的充分信息的基礎上，結果是設施設計可能更符合成本效率。根據(jù)以上所述，對施工期間重新設計的任何特殊個例應作出多方面的考慮。</p><p>　　當把一致性看作是施工期間質

86、量措施的時候，設計和合同文件中的質量要求說明非常重要。質量要求應明確和可查證，以便項目參與各方面都能了解一致性所提出的要求。</p><p>　　建設項目安全同樣也在很大程度上受到計劃和設計過程中所做決策的影響。某些設計或施工計劃本身實施起來就是困難和危險的，這時如改用其他可替代的方案，則可極大地減少事故發(fā)生的可能性。例如，在公路養(yǎng)護中，把施工區(qū)與車行道明顯地隔開就能極大地減少發(fā)生撞車事故的可能性。除這些決策外，

87、安全在很大程度上取決于施工過程中的教育、警惕性和協(xié)作精神。對工人應經常提醒發(fā)生事故的可能性和避免不必要的冒險。</p><p><b>　　全面質量控制</b></p><p>　　施工質量控制的一般含義是保證符合材料和工藝的最低標準，目的是確保設施達到設計要求的性能標準。這些最低標準都包括在說明書中。為了保證符合最低標準的目的，一般應用隨機抽樣和統(tǒng)計法作為接受或否決

88、已完成工作和批量材料的依據(jù)。否決一批材料的依據(jù)就是不符合或違反相關設計說明書。</p><p>　　在傳統(tǒng)質量控制實踐中有一個隱含的假設是所謂的可接受質量水平的概念，也就是有缺陷物品的允許比例。只要估計缺陷率在可接受質量水平范圍以內，就認為供應商供應的材料或由組織完成的工作得到檢查并且在可接受水平通過。而與材料或貨物相關的問題可在產品交付以后更改。</p><p>　　與這種傳統(tǒng)質量控制方

89、法相對照的是全面質量控制目標。按照全面質量控制的方法，施工過程中任何地方都不允許出現(xiàn)有缺陷的產品。雖然零缺陷目標永遠不可能永久達到，但全面質量控制提出一個目標，結果是即使缺陷逐年地大幅度減少，組織永遠也不會對其執(zhí)行質量管理計劃表示滿意。用這個概念和方法來進行質量控制首先流行在日本和歐洲的制造公司，但后來又擴大到許多建筑公司。</p><p>　　全面質量控制是一個組織的所有部門對質量表示的承諾，它一般包括許多組成

90、部分。其中最主要的組成部分是為保證安全和有效施工程序而對設計進行的檢查。其他組成部分包括廣泛的人員培訓、把發(fā)現(xiàn)缺陷的責任從質量控制員轉為由工人承擔、不間斷地保養(yǎng)設備等。形成正式的工人在質量圈中經常參與改進質量控制的機制，在質量圈中工人小組定期碰頭對質量改進提出建議。同樣要求材料供應商保證所交材料零缺陷，開始時對供應商提供的全部材料進行檢查，對任何有缺陷的貨物實行批量退貨。可以發(fā)證書給有良好記錄的供應商，對其提供的貨物不實行完全檢查。&l

91、t;/p><p>　　傳統(tǒng)微觀經濟的質量控制觀點是有一個最好的缺陷品比例存在。如想超過這個最好比例以獲得更好的質量，就可能極大地增加檢查成本和減低工人的勞動生產力。但是，許多公司已經發(fā)現(xiàn)，推行全面質量控制帶來的巨大經濟效益，而這些經濟效益是過去實行傳統(tǒng)管理方法時所沒有認識到的。與庫存、返工、清理廢料、質保有關的費用減少。工人的熱情和責任心增強。客戶通常對較高質量工作評價高，而且愿意為優(yōu)質而多付錢。結果是經改進的質量控

92、制就具有競爭性的優(yōu)勢。</p><p>　　當然，全面質量控制在推行上也有困難，尤其在建設工程中。每個設施的獨特性、勞動力的可變性、眾多的分包商、在教育和程序上進行必要投資的成本，使得全面質量控制方法在建筑業(yè)推行困難。不過，一個即使沒有零缺陷目標書的改進質量承諾總能給生產企業(yè)帶來實在的利益。</p><p><b>　　安全</b></p><p&

93、gt;　　施工是帶有危險性的工作。建筑業(yè)中由于工人受傷或生病造成的傷亡事故和工時丟失現(xiàn)象實際上比其他任何行業(yè)要多得多。這些與工作相關的傷病治療費用非常昂貴。美國建筑業(yè)正本效益項目所作出的估計，美國工業(yè)公用事業(yè)和商業(yè)建設工程中每年花費在事故處理上的費用是89億美元，或接近1370億美元的7%（以1979年美元計）。這筆總費用中包括直接費用（醫(yī)藥費、工人賠償金、賠償責任和財產損失），以及間接費用（工人勞動生產率下降、項目延誤、行政處理時間、

94、設備和設施的損壞）。與大部分工業(yè)事故相對照，建筑工地上無辜的旁立者也可能遭受建筑事故的傷害。甚至發(fā)生過從在建高層大樓上掉下數(shù)臺起重機造成多名行人死亡的嚴重事故。因此，謹慎的項目經理和業(yè)主應設法盡可能地減少事故、傷殘和疾病。</p><p>　　和對待建筑工程中的所有其他費用一樣，業(yè)主不能忽視工傷和疾病這樣的重要成本類別。雖然承包商可直接為工人交保險金，但這些費用就體現(xiàn)在標價或合同價格內。由于工人傷病引起的延誤給業(yè)

95、主造成重大的機會成本損失。從長遠來說，所建設施的業(yè)主必須支付全部工程成本。對于受傷或生病的情況，這一總的原則也許要稍微根據(jù)具體情況分析一下，因為此時大部分的費用是由工人自己或社會負擔的。然而，因個人遭受到損失而由法院判決的費用和保險賠償最終應由業(yè)主承擔。</p><p>　　適用于改進施工現(xiàn)場安全的措施很多，其中幾個最重要的措施應安排在施工前采取。這些措施里包括設計、技術選擇和教育。通過改變設施的設計，某個結構施

96、工時可能更安全或者更危險。例如，護墻可以設計成能保障施工工人安全的合適高度，而不是建筑規(guī)范所要求的最低高度。</p><p>　　技術選擇在決定工場的安全性方面也很關鍵。機器內的防護裝置能提示操作員應注意的問題，還可能預防傷害事故。例如，在現(xiàn)場沒有防護板時，簡單的開關就能防止機器設備起動。隨著板上電子元件（包括計算機芯片）和傳感器的出現(xiàn)，高精機器控制器和監(jiān)測器可能越來越多地應用在建設設備和工具上。材料和工作過程選

97、擇也影響施工安全。例如，應用石棉代用品就能減少或消除上期病例如石棉沉著癥的發(fā)生。</p><p>　　按照適當程序并且根據(jù)建筑工場的危險情況，對工人和管理人員進行安全教育，能對工場安全有直接影響。施工中為傷殘和疾病付出巨大代價的現(xiàn)實是加強安全意識和教育的巨大推動力。在大部分建筑工地上，定期的安全檢查和召開安全會議已成為規(guī)范的工作方式。</p><p>　　從安全角度對承包商和分包商進行資格

98、預審查是改進安全的另一個重要手段。假如只有擁有認可安全記錄（及質量合格記錄）的承包商才能被邀請來投標或談判，那就是直接鼓勵承包商一方來充分保證生產的安全。</p><p>　　在施工自身過程中，最重要的安全措施是保證項目經理、監(jiān)督員和工人三方面得安全的警惕性和協(xié)作。警惕性包括衡量不同做法的風險，還包括設置臨時性的物理防護裝置，如路障、支架、牽索、圍欄、腳趾護板和其他類似裝置。一系列標準安全做法同樣是重要的，例如：